Big changes

engine/include/sophia/compute_smoke_test.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include <string>
+
+namespace sophia {
+
+// Minimal end-to-end compute dispatch: compiles the GLSL compute shader at
+// `computeShaderPath`, builds the descriptor/pipeline layer around a small
+// storage buffer, dispatches it, reads the buffer back, and verifies the
+// result against what the shader is expected to compute. Logs the outcome
+// and throws std::runtime_error if the GPU result doesn't match.
+void runComputeSmokeTest(const std::string& computeShaderPath);
+
+}  // namespace sophia

engine/src/application.cpp

@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ namespace sophia {
 class Application::Impl {
  public:
   Impl(const Application::Config& config)
-      : engine{{config.width, config.height, config.name}} {}
+      : engine{{config.width, config.height, config.name, config.headless}} {}
 
   void run() { engine.run(); }
 

engine/src/compute_pipeline.cpp

@@ -1,72 +0,0 @@
-#include "compute_pipeline.hpp"
-
-#include <sophia/util/logger.hpp>
-#include <stdexcept>
-
-namespace sophia {
-
-ComputePipeline::ComputePipeline(Device& device) : device{device} {}
-
-ComputePipeline::~ComputePipeline() {
-  log::trace("destoryed vk::Pipeline (compute)");
-}
-
-void ComputePipeline::create(Shader& shader,
-                             vk::PipelineLayout pipelineLayout) {
-  if (shader.getStage() != ShaderStage::COMPUTE) {
-    log::fatal(
-        "failed to create compute pipeline: shader is not a compute shader");
-    throw std::runtime_error(
-        "failed to create compute pipeline: shader is not a compute shader");
-  }
-
-  if (pipelineLayout == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
-    log::fatal(
-        "failed to create compute pipeline: no vk::PipelineLayout provided");
-    throw std::runtime_error(
-        "failed to create compute pipeline: no vk::PipelineLayout provided");
-  }
-
-  vk::UniqueShaderModule computeShaderModule =
-      createShaderModule(shader.getSpirv());
-  log::trace("created compute shader module");
-
-  vk::PipelineShaderStageCreateInfo shaderStage{
-      vk::PipelineShaderStageCreateFlags(), vk::ShaderStageFlagBits::eCompute,
-      computeShaderModule.get(), "main"};
-
-  vk::ComputePipelineCreateInfo pipelineInfo{};
-  pipelineInfo.stage = shaderStage;
-  pipelineInfo.layout = pipelineLayout;
-  pipelineInfo.basePipelineHandle = nullptr;
-
-  try {
-    this->computePipeline =
-        this->device.get()
-            ->createComputePipelineUnique(nullptr, pipelineInfo)
-            .value;
-    log::trace("created vk::Pipeline (compute)");
-  } catch (const vk::SystemError& err) {
-    log::fatal("failed to create vk::Pipeline (compute)");
-    throw std::runtime_error("failed to create vk::Pipeline (compute)");
-  }
-}
-
-void ComputePipeline::bind(vk::CommandBuffer commandBuffer) {
-  commandBuffer.bindPipeline(vk::PipelineBindPoint::eCompute,
-                             this->computePipeline.get());
-}
-
-vk::UniqueShaderModule ComputePipeline::createShaderModule(
-    const std::vector<u32>& spirv) {
-  try {
-    return device.get()->createShaderModuleUnique(
-        {vk::ShaderModuleCreateFlags(), spirv.size() * sizeof(u32),
-         spirv.data()});
-  } catch (const vk::SystemError& err) {
-    log::fatal("failed to create shader module");
-    throw std::runtime_error("failed to create shader module");
-  }
-}
-
-}  // namespace sophia

engine/src/compute_pipeline.hpp

@@ -1,29 +0,0 @@
-#pragma once
-
-#include <vulkan/vulkan.hpp>
-
-#include "device.hpp"
-#include "shader.hpp"
-
-namespace sophia {
-
-class ComputePipeline {
- public:
-  ComputePipeline(const ComputePipeline&) = delete;
-  ComputePipeline& operator=(const ComputePipeline&) = delete;
-
-  ComputePipeline(Device& device);
-  ~ComputePipeline();
-
-  void create(Shader& shader, vk::PipelineLayout pipelineLayout);
-
-  void bind(vk::CommandBuffer commandBuffer);
-
- private:
-  vk::UniqueShaderModule createShaderModule(const std::vector<u32>& spirv);
-
-  Device& device;
-  vk::UniquePipeline computePipeline;
-};
-
-}  // namespace sophia

engine/src/compute_smoke_test.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+#include <cmath>
+#include <cstring>
+#include <sophia/compute_smoke_test.hpp>
+#include <sophia/util/logger.hpp>
+#include <stdexcept>
+#include <vector>
+
+#include "buffer.hpp"
+#include "descriptors/descriptor_pool.hpp"
+#include "descriptors/descriptor_set_layout.hpp"
+#include "descriptors/descriptor_writer.hpp"
+#include "device.hpp"
+#include "pipelines/compute_pipeline.hpp"
+#include "shader.hpp"
+
+namespace sophia {
+
+namespace {
+
+constexpr u32 kElementCount = 256;
+constexpr u32 kWorkgroupSize = 64;
+
+}  // namespace
+
+void runComputeSmokeTest(const std::string& computeShaderPath) {
+  auto device = Device::Builder().headless().build();
+
+  Buffer buffer{*device, sizeof(f32), kElementCount,
+                vk::BufferUsageFlagBits::eStorageBuffer,
+                vk::MemoryPropertyFlagBits::eHostVisible |
+                    vk::MemoryPropertyFlagBits::eHostCoherent};
+
+  std::vector<f32> input(kElementCount);
+  for (u32 i = 0; i < kElementCount; i++) {
+    input[i] = static_cast<f32>(i);
+  }
+
+  buffer.map();
+  buffer.writeToBuffer(input.data(), sizeof(f32) * kElementCount);
+  buffer.unmap();
+
+  auto shader = Shader::Builder()
+                    .fromGLSL(computeShaderPath)
+                    .setStage(ShaderStage::COMPUTE)
+                    .build();
+
+  auto setLayout = DescriptorSetLayout::Builder(*device)
+                       .addBinding(0, vk::DescriptorType::eStorageBuffer,
+                                   vk::ShaderStageFlagBits::eCompute)
+                       .build();
+
+  auto pool = DescriptorPool::Builder(*device)
+                  .addPoolSize(vk::DescriptorType::eStorageBuffer, 1)
+                  .setMaxSets(1)
+                  .build();
+
+  vk::DescriptorBufferInfo bufferInfo = buffer.descriptorInfo();
+  vk::DescriptorSet descriptorSet;
+  if (!DescriptorWriter(*setLayout, *pool)
+           .writeBuffer(0, &bufferInfo)
+           .build(descriptorSet)) {
+    log::fatal("compute smoke test: failed to allocate descriptor set");
+    throw std::runtime_error(
+        "compute smoke test: failed to allocate descriptor set");
+  }
+
+  vk::DescriptorSetLayout rawSetLayout = setLayout->getDescriptorSetLayout();
+  vk::PipelineLayoutCreateInfo pipelineLayoutInfo{};
+  pipelineLayoutInfo.setLayoutCount = 1;
+  pipelineLayoutInfo.pSetLayouts = &rawSetLayout;
+
+  vk::UniquePipelineLayout pipelineLayout =
+      device->get()->createPipelineLayoutUnique(pipelineLayoutInfo);
+
+  std::unique_ptr<sophia::ComputePipeline> computePipeline =
+      ComputePipeline::Builder(*device)
+          .setShader(*shader)
+          .setPipelineLayout(pipelineLayout.get())
+          .build();
+
+  vk::CommandBuffer commandBuffer = device->beginSingleTimeCommands();
+  computePipeline->bind(commandBuffer);
+  commandBuffer.bindDescriptorSets(vk::PipelineBindPoint::eCompute,
+                                   pipelineLayout.get(), 0, descriptorSet, {});
+  commandBuffer.dispatch((kElementCount + kWorkgroupSize - 1) / kWorkgroupSize,
+                         1, 1);
+  device->endSingleTimeCommands(commandBuffer);
+
+  std::vector<f32> output(kElementCount);
+  buffer.map();
+  std::memcpy(output.data(), buffer.getMappedMemory(),
+              sizeof(f32) * kElementCount);
+  buffer.unmap();
+
+  u32 mismatches = 0;
+  for (u32 i = 0; i < kElementCount; i++) {
+    f32 expected = input[i] * 2.0f;
+    if (std::fabs(output[i] - expected) > 1e-4f) {
+      mismatches++;
+    }
+  }
+
+  if (mismatches > 0) {
+    log::fatal("compute smoke test FAILED:", mismatches, "/", kElementCount,
+               "elements mismatched");
+    throw std::runtime_error("compute smoke test: GPU result did not match");
+  }
+
+  log::info("compute smoke test PASSED:", kElementCount, "elements verified");
+}
+
+}  // namespace sophia

engine/src/device.cpp

@@ -21,6 +21,10 @@ debugCallback(vk::DebugUtilsMessageSeverityFlagBitsEXT m_severity,
     return VK_SUCCESS;
   } else if (m_severity == vk::DebugUtilsMessageSeverityFlagBitsEXT::eWarning) {
     log::warning(pCallback_data->pMessage);
+  } else if (m_severity == vk::DebugUtilsMessageSeverityFlagBitsEXT::eInfo) {
+    log::info(pCallback_data->pMessage);
+  } else if (m_severity == vk::DebugUtilsMessageSeverityFlagBitsEXT::eVerbose) {
+    log::verbose(pCallback_data->pMessage);
   } else {
     log::info(pCallback_data->pMessage);
   }
@@ -51,10 +55,16 @@ void destroyDebugUtilsMessengerEXT(VkInstance instance,
   }
 }
 
-Device::Device(Window& window) : window{window} {
+Device::Device(Window* window)
+    : headless{window == nullptr},
+      enabledExtensions{headless ? std::vector<const char*>{}
+                                 : std::vector<const char*>{
+                                       VK_KHR_SWAPCHAIN_EXTENSION_NAME}} {
   createVulkanInstance();
   setupDebugMessenger();
-  this->window.createSurface(*instance, surface);
+  if (!this->headless) {
+    window->createSurface(*instance, surface);
+  }
   pickPhysicalDevice();
   createLogicalDevice();
   createCommandPool();
@@ -70,8 +80,42 @@ Device::~Device() {
   this->device->destroyCommandPool(commandPool);
   log::trace("destroyed vk::CommandPool");
 
+  if (!this->headless) {
     this->instance->destroySurfaceKHR(surface);
     log::trace("destroyed vk::SurfaceKHR");
+  }
+}
+
+Device::Builder& Device::Builder::withWindow(Window& window) {
+  this->window = &window;
+  this->headlessRequested = false;
+  this->modeSet = true;
+  return *this;
+}
+
+Device::Builder& Device::Builder::headless() {
+  this->window = nullptr;
+  this->headlessRequested = true;
+  this->modeSet = true;
+  return *this;
+}
+
+std::unique_ptr<Device> Device::Builder::build() const {
+  if (!this->modeSet) {
+    log::fatal(
+        "failed to build device: neither withWindow() nor headless() was "
+        "called");
+    throw std::runtime_error(
+        "failed to build device: no window/headless mode specified");
+  }
+
+  if (this->headlessRequested) {
+    log::verbose("building headless Device");
+    return std::unique_ptr<Device>(new Device(nullptr));
+  } else {
+    log::verbose("building windowed Device");
+    return std::unique_ptr<Device>(new Device(this->window));
+  }
 }
 
 u32 Device::findMemoryType(u32 typeFilter, vk::MemoryPropertyFlags properties) {
@@ -299,12 +343,14 @@ bool Device::checkValidationLayerSupport() {
 }
 
 std::vector<const char*> Device::getRequiredExtensions() {
-  u32 glfw_extension_count = 0;
+  std::vector<const char*> extensions;
-  const char** glfw_extensions;
-  glfw_extensions = glfwGetRequiredInstanceExtensions(&glfw_extension_count);
 
-  std::vector<const char*> extensions(glfw_extensions,
+  if (!this->headless) {
-                                      glfw_extensions + glfw_extension_count);
+    u32 glfw_extension_count = 0;
+    const char** glfw_extensions =
+        glfwGetRequiredInstanceExtensions(&glfw_extension_count);
+    extensions.assign(glfw_extensions, glfw_extensions + glfw_extension_count);
+  }
 
   if (enableValidationLayers) {
     extensions.push_back(VK_EXT_DEBUG_UTILS_EXTENSION_NAME);
@@ -381,7 +427,8 @@ QueueFamilyIndices Device::findQueueFamilies(vk::PhysicalDevice device) {
       indices.graphicsFamily = i;
     }
 
-    if (queueFamily.queueCount > 0 && device.getSurfaceSupportKHR(i, surface)) {
+    if (!this->headless && queueFamily.queueCount > 0 &&
+        device.getSurfaceSupportKHR(i, surface)) {
       indices.presentFamily = i;
     }
 
@@ -410,6 +457,10 @@ bool Device::isPhysicalDeviceSuitable(const vk::PhysicalDevice& device) {
 
   bool extensionsSupported = checkDeviceExtensionSupport(device);
 
+  if (this->headless) {
+    return indices.graphicsFamily.has_value() && extensionsSupported;
+  }
+
   bool swapchainAdequate = false;
   if (extensionsSupported) {
     SwapchainSupportDetails swapchainSupport = querySwapchainSupport(device);
@@ -450,10 +501,12 @@ void Device::pickPhysicalDevice() {
 void Device::createLogicalDevice() {
   QueueFamilyIndices indices = findQueueFamilies(this->physicalDevice);
 
-  std::vector<vk::DeviceQueueCreateInfo> queueCreateInfos;
+  std::set<uint32_t> uniqueQueueFamilies = {indices.graphicsFamily.value()};
-  std::set<uint32_t> uniqueQueueFamilies = {indices.graphicsFamily.value(),
+  if (!this->headless) {
-                                            indices.presentFamily.value()};
+    uniqueQueueFamilies.insert(indices.presentFamily.value());
+  }
 
+  std::vector<vk::DeviceQueueCreateInfo> queueCreateInfos;
   float queuePriority = 1.0f;
 
   for (uint32_t queueFamily : uniqueQueueFamilies) {
@@ -461,11 +514,15 @@ void Device::createLogicalDevice() {
         {vk::DeviceQueueCreateFlags(), queueFamily, 1, &queuePriority});
   }
 
+  vk::PhysicalDeviceVulkan13Features vulkan13Features{};
+  vulkan13Features.dynamicRendering = vk::True;
+
   auto deviceFeatures = vk::PhysicalDeviceFeatures();
   auto createInfo = vk::DeviceCreateInfo(
       vk::DeviceCreateFlags(), static_cast<uint32_t>(queueCreateInfos.size()),
       queueCreateInfos.data());
   createInfo.pEnabledFeatures = &deviceFeatures;
+  createInfo.pNext = &vulkan13Features;
 
   createInfo.enabledExtensionCount =
       static_cast<uint32_t>(this->enabledExtensions.size());
@@ -480,7 +537,9 @@ void Device::createLogicalDevice() {
   }
 
   this->graphicsQueue = device->getQueue(indices.graphicsFamily.value(), 0);
+  if (!this->headless) {
     this->presentQueue = device->getQueue(indices.presentFamily.value(), 0);
+  }
 }
 
 SwapchainSupportDetails Device::querySwapchainSupport(

engine/src/device.hpp

@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 #include <imgui_impl_vulkan.h>
 
 #include <cassert>
+#include <memory>
 #include <optional>
 #include <sophia/types.hpp>
 #include <vector>
@@ -31,12 +32,13 @@ struct SwapchainSupportDetails {
 
 class Device {
  public:
+  class Builder;
+
   Device(const Device&) = delete;
   Device& operator=(const Device&) = delete;
   Device(Device&&) = delete;
   Device& operator=(Device&&) = delete;
 
-  Device(Window& window);
   ~Device();
 
   const vk::Device* get() const {
@@ -85,6 +87,8 @@ class Device {
   vk::PhysicalDeviceProperties properties;
 
  private:
+  Device(Window* window);
+
   void setupDebugMessenger();
 
   bool checkValidationLayerSupport();
@@ -104,7 +108,7 @@ class Device {
   vk::UniqueInstance instance;
   VkDebugUtilsMessengerEXT debugMessenger;
 
-  Window& window;
+  const bool headless;
   vk::SurfaceKHR surface;
 
   vk::PhysicalDevice physicalDevice = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
@@ -123,8 +127,22 @@ class Device {
   const std::vector<const char*> enabledLayers = {
       "VK_LAYER_KHRONOS_validation"};
 #endif
-  const std::vector<const char*> enabledExtensions = {
+  const std::vector<const char*> enabledExtensions;
-      VK_KHR_SWAPCHAIN_EXTENSION_NAME};
+};
+
+class Device::Builder {
+ public:
+  Builder() = default;
+
+  Builder& withWindow(Window& window);
+  Builder& headless();
+
+  std::unique_ptr<Device> build() const;
+
+ private:
+  Window* window = nullptr;
+  bool headlessRequested = false;
+  bool modeSet = false;
 };
 
 }  // namespace sophia

engine/src/engine.cpp

@@ -7,11 +7,15 @@
 
 namespace sophia {
 
-Engine::Engine(const Config& config)
+Engine::Engine(const Config& config) : config{config} {
-    : config{config},
+  if (config.headless) {
-      window{config.width, config.height, config.name},
+    this->device = Device::Builder().headless().build();
-      device{this->window}  // renderer{this->window, this->device}
+  } else {
-{
+    this->window =
+        std::make_unique<Window>(config.width, config.height, config.name);
+    this->device = Device::Builder().withWindow(*this->window).build();
+  }
+
   //   this->imguiDescriptorPool =
   //       DescriptorPool::Builder(this->device)
   //           .addPoolSize(vk::DescriptorType::eCombinedImageSampler,
@@ -31,7 +35,7 @@ Engine::Engine(const Config& config)
   //           .build();
 };
 
-Engine::~Engine() { this->device.waitIdle(); };
+Engine::~Engine() { this->device->waitIdle(); };
 
 void Engine::run() {
   auto startTime = std::chrono::high_resolution_clock::now();
@@ -41,7 +45,9 @@ void Engine::run() {
   //     std::bind(&Application::onEvent, this, std::placeholders::_1));
 
   while (this->isRunning) {
+    if (this->window) {
       glfwPollEvents();
+    }
 
     auto newTime = std::chrono::high_resolution_clock::now();
     double deltaTime =
@@ -65,7 +71,7 @@ void Engine::run() {
     this->isRunning = false;
   }
 
-  this->device.waitIdle();
+  this->device->waitIdle();
 
   auto endTime = std::chrono::high_resolution_clock::now();
   double totalRuntime =

engine/src/engine.hpp

@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 #pragma once
 
+#include <memory>
 #include <string>
 
 #include "device.hpp"
@@ -13,6 +14,7 @@ class Engine {
     int width;
     int height;
     std::string name;
+    bool headless = false;
   };
 
   Engine(const Engine&) = delete;
@@ -26,8 +28,8 @@ class Engine {
  private:
   Config config;
 
-  Window window;
+  std::unique_ptr<Window> window;
-  Device device;
+  std::unique_ptr<Device> device;
 
   bool isRunning = true;
 };

engine/src/pipelines/compute_pipeline.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+#include "compute_pipeline.hpp"
+
+#include <sophia/util/logger.hpp>
+#include <stdexcept>
+
+namespace sophia {
+
+ComputePipeline::Builder& ComputePipeline::Builder::setShader(Shader& shader) {
+  if (shader.getStage() != ShaderStage::COMPUTE) {
+    log::fatal(
+        "failed to configure compute pipeline: shader is not a compute "
+        "shader");
+    throw std::runtime_error(
+        "failed to configure compute pipeline: shader is not a compute "
+        "shader");
+  }
+
+  if (this->shader != nullptr) {
+    log::warning("compute pipeline builder: shader already set, overwriting");
+  }
+
+  this->shader = &shader;
+  return *this;
+}
+
+ComputePipeline::Builder& ComputePipeline::Builder::setPipelineLayout(
+    vk::PipelineLayout pipelineLayout) {
+  this->pipelineLayout = pipelineLayout;
+  return *this;
+}
+
+std::unique_ptr<ComputePipeline> ComputePipeline::Builder::build() const {
+  if (this->shader == nullptr) {
+    log::fatal("failed to build compute pipeline: setShader() was not called");
+    throw std::runtime_error(
+        "failed to build compute pipeline: setShader() was not called");
+  }
+
+  if (this->pipelineLayout == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
+    log::fatal(
+        "failed to build compute pipeline: setPipelineLayout() was not "
+        "called");
+    throw std::runtime_error(
+        "failed to build compute pipeline: setPipelineLayout() was not "
+        "called");
+  }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<ComputePipeline>(
+      new ComputePipeline(this->device, *this->shader, this->pipelineLayout));
+}
+
+ComputePipeline::ComputePipeline(Device& device, Shader& shader,
+                                 vk::PipelineLayout pipelineLayout)
+    : Pipeline(device, vk::PipelineBindPoint::eCompute) {
+  vk::UniqueShaderModule computeShaderModule =
+      createShaderModule(shader.getSpirv());
+  log::trace("created compute shader module");
+
+  vk::PipelineShaderStageCreateInfo shaderStage{
+      vk::PipelineShaderStageCreateFlags(), vk::ShaderStageFlagBits::eCompute,
+      computeShaderModule.get(), "main"};
+
+  vk::ComputePipelineCreateInfo pipelineInfo{};
+  pipelineInfo.stage = shaderStage;
+  pipelineInfo.layout = pipelineLayout;
+  pipelineInfo.basePipelineHandle = nullptr;
+
+  try {
+    this->pipeline = this->device.get()
+                         ->createComputePipelineUnique(nullptr, pipelineInfo)
+                         .value;
+    log::trace("created vk::Pipeline (compute)");
+  } catch (const vk::SystemError& err) {
+    log::fatal("failed to create vk::Pipeline (compute)");
+    throw std::runtime_error("failed to create vk::Pipeline (compute)");
+  }
+}
+
+ComputePipeline::~ComputePipeline() {
+  log::trace("destoryed vk::Pipeline (compute)");
+}
+
+}  // namespace sophia

engine/src/pipelines/compute_pipeline.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include <memory>
+#include <vulkan/vulkan.hpp>
+
+#include "device.hpp"
+#include "pipeline.hpp"
+#include "shader.hpp"
+
+namespace sophia {
+
+class ComputePipeline : public Pipeline {
+ public:
+  class Builder;
+
+  ~ComputePipeline() override;
+
+ private:
+  ComputePipeline(Device& device, Shader& shader,
+                  vk::PipelineLayout pipelineLayout);
+};
+
+class ComputePipeline::Builder {
+ public:
+  Builder(Device& device) : device{device} {}
+
+  Builder& setShader(Shader& shader);
+  Builder& setPipelineLayout(vk::PipelineLayout pipelineLayout);
+
+  std::unique_ptr<ComputePipeline> build() const;
+
+ private:
+  Device& device;
+
+  Shader* shader = nullptr;
+  vk::PipelineLayout pipelineLayout = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
+};
+
+}  // namespace sophia

engine/src/pipelines/graphics_pipeline.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,282 @@
+#include "graphics_pipeline.hpp"
+
+#include <sophia/util/logger.hpp>
+#include <stdexcept>
+#include <utility>
+
+namespace sophia {
+
+GraphicsPipeline::Builder& GraphicsPipeline::Builder::setVertexShader(
+    Shader& vertexShader) {
+  if (vertexShader.getStage() != ShaderStage::VERTEX) {
+    log::fatal(
+        "failed to configure graphics pipeline: shader is not a vertex "
+        "shader");
+    throw std::runtime_error(
+        "failed to configure graphics pipeline: shader is not a vertex "
+        "shader");
+  }
+
+  if (this->vertexShader != nullptr) {
+    log::warning(
+        "graphics pipeline builder: vertex shader already set, overwriting");
+  }
+
+  this->vertexShader = &vertexShader;
+  return *this;
+}
+
+GraphicsPipeline::Builder& GraphicsPipeline::Builder::setFragmentShader(
+    Shader& fragmentShader) {
+  if (fragmentShader.getStage() != ShaderStage::FRAGMENT) {
+    log::fatal(
+        "failed to configure graphics pipeline: shader is not a fragment "
+        "shader");
+    throw std::runtime_error(
+        "failed to configure graphics pipeline: shader is not a fragment "
+        "shader");
+  }
+
+  if (this->fragmentShader != nullptr) {
+    log::warning(
+        "graphics pipeline builder: fragment shader already set, "
+        "overwriting");
+  }
+
+  this->fragmentShader = &fragmentShader;
+  return *this;
+}
+
+GraphicsPipeline::Builder& GraphicsPipeline::Builder::addShader(
+    Shader& shader) {
+  switch (shader.getStage()) {
+    case ShaderStage::VERTEX:
+      return setVertexShader(shader);
+    case ShaderStage::FRAGMENT:
+      return setFragmentShader(shader);
+    default:
+      log::fatal(
+          "failed to configure graphics pipeline: unsupported shader stage");
+      throw std::runtime_error(
+          "failed to configure graphics pipeline: unsupported shader stage");
+  }
+}
+
+GraphicsPipeline::Builder& GraphicsPipeline::Builder::setPipelineLayout(
+    vk::PipelineLayout pipelineLayout) {
+  this->pipelineLayout = pipelineLayout;
+  return *this;
+}
+
+GraphicsPipeline::Builder& GraphicsPipeline::Builder::setColorAttachmentFormats(
+    std::vector<vk::Format> colorAttachmentFormats) {
+  this->colorAttachmentFormats = std::move(colorAttachmentFormats);
+  return *this;
+}
+
+GraphicsPipeline::Builder& GraphicsPipeline::Builder::setDepthAttachmentFormat(
+    vk::Format depthAttachmentFormat) {
+  this->depthAttachmentFormat = depthAttachmentFormat;
+  return *this;
+}
+
+GraphicsPipeline::Builder&
+GraphicsPipeline::Builder::setStencilAttachmentFormat(
+    vk::Format stencilAttachmentFormat) {
+  this->stencilAttachmentFormat = stencilAttachmentFormat;
+  return *this;
+}
+
+GraphicsPipeline::Builder& GraphicsPipeline::Builder::setVertexInput(
+    std::vector<vk::VertexInputBindingDescription> bindingDescriptions,
+    std::vector<vk::VertexInputAttributeDescription> attributeDescriptions) {
+  this->bindingDescriptions = std::move(bindingDescriptions);
+  this->attributeDescriptions = std::move(attributeDescriptions);
+  return *this;
+}
+
+std::unique_ptr<GraphicsPipeline> GraphicsPipeline::Builder::build() const {
+  if (this->vertexShader == nullptr || this->fragmentShader == nullptr) {
+    log::fatal(
+        "failed to build graphics pipeline: setVertexShader()/"
+        "setFragmentShader() was not called");
+    throw std::runtime_error(
+        "failed to build graphics pipeline: setVertexShader()/"
+        "setFragmentShader() was not called");
+  }
+
+  if (this->pipelineLayout == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
+    log::fatal(
+        "failed to build graphics pipeline: setPipelineLayout() was not "
+        "called");
+    throw std::runtime_error(
+        "failed to build graphics pipeline: setPipelineLayout() was not "
+        "called");
+  }
+
+  if (this->colorAttachmentFormats.empty() &&
+      this->depthAttachmentFormat == vk::Format::eUndefined) {
+    log::fatal(
+        "failed to build graphics pipeline: no color or depth attachment "
+        "format provided");
+    throw std::runtime_error(
+        "failed to build graphics pipeline: setColorAttachmentFormats() or "
+        "setDepthAttachmentFormat() was not called");
+  }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<GraphicsPipeline>(new GraphicsPipeline(
+      this->device, *this->vertexShader, *this->fragmentShader,
+      this->pipelineLayout, this->colorAttachmentFormats,
+      this->depthAttachmentFormat, this->stencilAttachmentFormat,
+      this->bindingDescriptions, this->attributeDescriptions));
+}
+
+GraphicsPipeline::GraphicsPipeline(
+    Device& device, Shader& vertexShader, Shader& fragmentShader,
+    vk::PipelineLayout pipelineLayout,
+    std::vector<vk::Format> colorAttachmentFormats,
+    vk::Format depthAttachmentFormat, vk::Format stencilAttachmentFormat,
+    std::vector<vk::VertexInputBindingDescription> bindingDescriptions,
+    std::vector<vk::VertexInputAttributeDescription> attributeDescriptions)
+    : Pipeline(device, vk::PipelineBindPoint::eGraphics) {
+  setDefaultGraphicsPipelineConfig();
+
+  this->config.bindingDescriptions = std::move(bindingDescriptions);
+  this->config.attributeDescriptions = std::move(attributeDescriptions);
+  this->config.pipelineLayout = pipelineLayout;
+  this->config.colorAttachmentFormats = std::move(colorAttachmentFormats);
+  this->config.depthAttachmentFormat = depthAttachmentFormat;
+  this->config.stencilAttachmentFormat = stencilAttachmentFormat;
+
+  vk::UniqueShaderModule vertexShaderModule =
+      createShaderModule(vertexShader.getSpirv());
+  vk::UniqueShaderModule fragmentShaderModule =
+      createShaderModule(fragmentShader.getSpirv());
+  log::trace("created graphics shader modules");
+
+  vk::PipelineShaderStageCreateInfo shaderStages[] = {
+      {vk::PipelineShaderStageCreateFlags(), vk::ShaderStageFlagBits::eVertex,
+       vertexShaderModule.get(), "main"},
+      {vk::PipelineShaderStageCreateFlags(), vk::ShaderStageFlagBits::eFragment,
+       fragmentShaderModule.get(), "main"}};
+
+  vk::PipelineVertexInputStateCreateInfo vertexInputInfo{};
+  vertexInputInfo.vertexBindingDescriptionCount =
+      static_cast<u32>(this->config.bindingDescriptions.size());
+  vertexInputInfo.pVertexBindingDescriptions =
+      this->config.bindingDescriptions.data();
+  vertexInputInfo.vertexAttributeDescriptionCount =
+      static_cast<u32>(this->config.attributeDescriptions.size());
+  vertexInputInfo.pVertexAttributeDescriptions =
+      this->config.attributeDescriptions.data();
+
+  vk::PipelineViewportStateCreateInfo viewportInfo{};
+  viewportInfo.viewportCount = 1;
+  viewportInfo.pViewports = nullptr;
+  viewportInfo.scissorCount = 1;
+  viewportInfo.pScissors = nullptr;
+
+  vk::PipelineRenderingCreateInfo pipelineRenderingInfo{};
+  pipelineRenderingInfo.colorAttachmentCount =
+      static_cast<u32>(this->config.colorAttachmentFormats.size());
+  pipelineRenderingInfo.pColorAttachmentFormats =
+      this->config.colorAttachmentFormats.data();
+  pipelineRenderingInfo.depthAttachmentFormat =
+      this->config.depthAttachmentFormat;
+  pipelineRenderingInfo.stencilAttachmentFormat =
+      this->config.stencilAttachmentFormat;
+
+  vk::GraphicsPipelineCreateInfo pipelineInfo{};
+  pipelineInfo.pNext = &pipelineRenderingInfo;
+  pipelineInfo.stageCount = 2;
+  pipelineInfo.pStages = shaderStages;
+  pipelineInfo.pVertexInputState = &vertexInputInfo;
+  pipelineInfo.pInputAssemblyState = &this->config.inputAssemblyInfo;
+  pipelineInfo.pViewportState = &viewportInfo;
+  pipelineInfo.pRasterizationState = &this->config.rasterizationInfo;
+  pipelineInfo.pMultisampleState = &this->config.multisampleInfo;
+  pipelineInfo.pDepthStencilState = &this->config.depthStencilInfo;
+  pipelineInfo.pColorBlendState = &this->config.colorBlendInfo;
+  pipelineInfo.pDynamicState = &this->config.dynamicStateInfo;
+
+  pipelineInfo.layout = this->config.pipelineLayout;
+  pipelineInfo.basePipelineHandle = nullptr;
+
+  try {
+    this->pipeline = this->device.get()
+                         ->createGraphicsPipelineUnique(nullptr, pipelineInfo)
+                         .value;
+    log::trace("created vk::Pipeline (graphics)");
+  } catch (const vk::SystemError& err) {
+    log::fatal("failed to create vk::Pipeline (graphics)");
+    throw std::runtime_error("failed to create vk::Pipeline (graphics)");
+  }
+}
+
+GraphicsPipeline::~GraphicsPipeline() {
+  log::trace("destroyed vk::Pipeline (graphics)");
+}
+
+void GraphicsPipeline::setDefaultGraphicsPipelineConfig() {
+  this->config.inputAssemblyInfo.topology =
+      vk::PrimitiveTopology::eTriangleList;
+  this->config.inputAssemblyInfo.primitiveRestartEnable = vk::False;
+
+  this->config.rasterizationInfo.depthClampEnable = vk::False;
+  this->config.rasterizationInfo.rasterizerDiscardEnable = vk::False;
+  this->config.rasterizationInfo.polygonMode = vk::PolygonMode::eFill;
+  this->config.rasterizationInfo.lineWidth = 1.0f;
+  this->config.rasterizationInfo.cullMode = vk::CullModeFlagBits::eNone;
+  this->config.rasterizationInfo.frontFace = vk::FrontFace::eClockwise;
+  this->config.rasterizationInfo.depthBiasEnable = vk::False;
+  this->config.rasterizationInfo.depthBiasConstantFactor = 0.0f;
+  this->config.rasterizationInfo.depthBiasClamp = 0.0f;
+  this->config.rasterizationInfo.depthBiasSlopeFactor = 0.0f;
+
+  this->config.multisampleInfo.sampleShadingEnable = vk::False;
+  this->config.multisampleInfo.rasterizationSamples =
+      vk::SampleCountFlagBits::e1;
+  this->config.multisampleInfo.minSampleShading = 1.0f;
+  this->config.multisampleInfo.pSampleMask = nullptr;
+  this->config.multisampleInfo.alphaToCoverageEnable = vk::False;
+  this->config.multisampleInfo.alphaToOneEnable = vk::False;
+
+  this->config.colorBlendAttachment.colorWriteMask =
+      vk::ColorComponentFlagBits::eR | vk::ColorComponentFlagBits::eG |
+      vk::ColorComponentFlagBits::eB | vk::ColorComponentFlagBits::eA;
+  this->config.colorBlendAttachment.blendEnable = vk::False;
+  this->config.colorBlendAttachment.srcColorBlendFactor = vk::BlendFactor::eOne;
+  this->config.colorBlendAttachment.dstColorBlendFactor =
+      vk::BlendFactor::eZero;
+  this->config.colorBlendAttachment.colorBlendOp = vk::BlendOp::eAdd;
+  this->config.colorBlendAttachment.srcAlphaBlendFactor = vk::BlendFactor::eOne;
+  this->config.colorBlendAttachment.dstAlphaBlendFactor =
+      vk::BlendFactor::eZero;
+  this->config.colorBlendAttachment.alphaBlendOp = vk::BlendOp::eAdd;
+
+  this->config.colorBlendInfo.logicOpEnable = vk::False;
+  this->config.colorBlendInfo.logicOp = vk::LogicOp::eCopy;
+  this->config.colorBlendInfo.attachmentCount = 1;
+  this->config.colorBlendInfo.pAttachments = &this->config.colorBlendAttachment;
+  this->config.colorBlendInfo.blendConstants[0] = 0.0f;
+  this->config.colorBlendInfo.blendConstants[1] = 0.0f;
+  this->config.colorBlendInfo.blendConstants[2] = 0.0f;
+  this->config.colorBlendInfo.blendConstants[3] = 0.0f;
+
+  this->config.depthStencilInfo.depthTestEnable = vk::True;
+  this->config.depthStencilInfo.depthWriteEnable = vk::True;
+  this->config.depthStencilInfo.depthCompareOp = vk::CompareOp::eLess;
+  this->config.depthStencilInfo.depthBoundsTestEnable = vk::False;
+  this->config.depthStencilInfo.minDepthBounds = 0.0f;
+  this->config.depthStencilInfo.maxDepthBounds = 1.0f;
+  this->config.depthStencilInfo.stencilTestEnable = vk::False;
+
+  this->config.dynamicStateEnables = {vk::DynamicState::eViewport,
+                                      vk::DynamicState::eScissor};
+  this->config.dynamicStateInfo.pDynamicStates =
+      this->config.dynamicStateEnables.data();
+  this->config.dynamicStateInfo.dynamicStateCount =
+      static_cast<u32>(this->config.dynamicStateEnables.size());
+}
+
+}  // namespace sophia

engine/src/pipelines/graphics_pipeline.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include <memory>
+#include <sophia/types.hpp>
+#include <string>
+#include <vector>
+#include <vulkan/vulkan.hpp>
+
+#include "device.hpp"
+#include "pipeline.hpp"
+#include "shader.hpp"
+
+namespace sophia {
+
+struct GraphicsPipelineConfig {
+  GraphicsPipelineConfig() = default;
+  GraphicsPipelineConfig(const GraphicsPipelineConfig&) = delete;
+  GraphicsPipelineConfig& operator=(const GraphicsPipelineConfig&) = delete;
+
+  std::vector<vk::VertexInputBindingDescription> bindingDescriptions{};
+  std::vector<vk::VertexInputAttributeDescription> attributeDescriptions{};
+  vk::PipelineInputAssemblyStateCreateInfo inputAssemblyInfo;
+  vk::PipelineRasterizationStateCreateInfo rasterizationInfo;
+  vk::PipelineMultisampleStateCreateInfo multisampleInfo;
+  vk::PipelineColorBlendAttachmentState colorBlendAttachment;
+  vk::PipelineColorBlendStateCreateInfo colorBlendInfo;
+  vk::PipelineDepthStencilStateCreateInfo depthStencilInfo;
+  std::vector<vk::DynamicState> dynamicStateEnables;
+  vk::PipelineDynamicStateCreateInfo dynamicStateInfo;
+
+  vk::PipelineLayout pipelineLayout = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
+  std::vector<vk::Format> colorAttachmentFormats{};
+  vk::Format depthAttachmentFormat = vk::Format::eUndefined;
+  vk::Format stencilAttachmentFormat = vk::Format::eUndefined;
+};
+
+class GraphicsPipeline : public Pipeline {
+ public:
+  class Builder;
+
+  ~GraphicsPipeline() override;
+
+ private:
+  GraphicsPipeline(
+      Device& device, Shader& vertexShader, Shader& fragmentShader,
+      vk::PipelineLayout pipelineLayout,
+      std::vector<vk::Format> colorAttachmentFormats,
+      vk::Format depthAttachmentFormat, vk::Format stencilAttachmentFormat,
+      std::vector<vk::VertexInputBindingDescription> bindingDescriptions,
+      std::vector<vk::VertexInputAttributeDescription> attributeDescriptions);
+
+  void setDefaultGraphicsPipelineConfig();
+
+  GraphicsPipelineConfig config;
+};
+
+class GraphicsPipeline::Builder {
+ public:
+  Builder(Device& device) : device{device} {}
+
+  Builder& setVertexShader(Shader& vertexShader);
+  Builder& setFragmentShader(Shader& fragmentShader);
+  Builder& addShader(Shader& shader);
+  Builder& setPipelineLayout(vk::PipelineLayout pipelineLayout);
+  Builder& setColorAttachmentFormats(
+      std::vector<vk::Format> colorAttachmentFormats);
+  Builder& setDepthAttachmentFormat(vk::Format depthAttachmentFormat);
+  Builder& setStencilAttachmentFormat(vk::Format stencilAttachmentFormat);
+  Builder& setVertexInput(
+      std::vector<vk::VertexInputBindingDescription> bindingDescriptions,
+      std::vector<vk::VertexInputAttributeDescription> attributeDescriptions);
+
+  std::unique_ptr<GraphicsPipeline> build() const;
+
+ private:
+  Device& device;
+
+  Shader* vertexShader = nullptr;
+  Shader* fragmentShader = nullptr;
+  vk::PipelineLayout pipelineLayout = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
+  std::vector<vk::Format> colorAttachmentFormats{};
+  vk::Format depthAttachmentFormat = vk::Format::eUndefined;
+  vk::Format stencilAttachmentFormat = vk::Format::eUndefined;
+  std::vector<vk::VertexInputBindingDescription> bindingDescriptions{};
+  std::vector<vk::VertexInputAttributeDescription> attributeDescriptions{};
+};
+
+}  // namespace sophia

engine/src/pipelines/pipeline.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+#include "pipeline.hpp"
+
+#include <sophia/util/logger.hpp>
+#include <stdexcept>
+
+namespace sophia {
+
+Pipeline::Pipeline(Device& device, vk::PipelineBindPoint bindPoint)
+    : device{device}, bindPoint{bindPoint} {}
+
+void Pipeline::bind(vk::CommandBuffer commandBuffer) {
+  commandBuffer.bindPipeline(this->bindPoint, this->pipeline.get());
+}
+
+vk::UniqueShaderModule Pipeline::createShaderModule(
+    const std::vector<u32>& spirv) {
+  try {
+    return device.get()->createShaderModuleUnique(
+        {vk::ShaderModuleCreateFlags(), spirv.size() * sizeof(u32),
+         spirv.data()});
+  } catch (const vk::SystemError& err) {
+    log::fatal("failed to create shader module");
+    throw std::runtime_error("failed to create shader module");
+  }
+}
+
+}  // namespace sophia

engine/src/pipelines/pipeline.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include <sophia/types.hpp>
+#include <vector>
+#include <vulkan/vulkan.hpp>
+
+#include "device.hpp"
+
+namespace sophia {
+
+class Pipeline {
+ public:
+  Pipeline(const Pipeline&) = delete;
+  Pipeline& operator=(const Pipeline&) = delete;
+
+  virtual ~Pipeline() = default;
+
+  void bind(vk::CommandBuffer commandBuffer);
+
+ protected:
+  Pipeline(Device& device, vk::PipelineBindPoint bindPoint);
+
+  vk::UniqueShaderModule createShaderModule(const std::vector<u32>& spirv);
+
+  Device& device;
+  vk::UniquePipeline pipeline;
+
+ private:
+  vk::PipelineBindPoint bindPoint;
+};
+
+}  // namespace sophia

engine/src/renderer.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+#pragma once
+
+namespace sophia {}  // namespace sophia

engine/src/swapchain.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,220 @@
+#include "swapchain.hpp"
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <limits>
+#include <sophia/util/logger.hpp>
+
+namespace sophia {
+
+Swapchain::Swapchain(Device& device, vk::Extent2D extent)
+    : device{device}, extent{extent} {
+  initialize();
+}
+
+Swapchain::Swapchain(Device& device, vk::Extent2D extent,
+                     std::shared_ptr<Swapchain> previous)
+    : device{device}, extent{extent}, oldSwapchain{previous} {
+  initialize();
+  this->oldSwapchain = nullptr;
+}
+
+Swapchain::~Swapchain() {
+  this->images.clear();
+  this->depthImages.clear();
+
+  this->device.get()->destroySwapchainKHR(this->swapchain);
+  // log::trace("destroyed vk::SwapchainKHR");
+}
+
+vk::Result Swapchain::acquireNextImage(vk::Semaphore signalSemaphore,
+                                       u32& imageIndex) {
+  return this->device.get()->acquireNextImageKHR(
+      this->swapchain, std::numeric_limits<u64>::max(), signalSemaphore,
+      VK_NULL_HANDLE, &imageIndex);
+}
+
+vk::Result Swapchain::present(vk::Queue presentQueue, u32 imageIndex,
+                              vk::Semaphore waitSemaphore) {
+  vk::PresentInfoKHR presentInfo = {};
+  presentInfo.waitSemaphoreCount = 1;
+  presentInfo.pWaitSemaphores = &waitSemaphore;
+
+  vk::SwapchainKHR swapChains[] = {this->swapchain};
+  presentInfo.swapchainCount = 1;
+  presentInfo.pSwapchains = swapChains;
+  presentInfo.pImageIndices = &imageIndex;
+
+  return presentQueue.presentKHR(&presentInfo);
+}
+
+void Swapchain::initialize() {
+  setDefaultCreateInfo();
+  createSwapchain();
+  createImages();
+  createDepthImages();
+}
+
+void Swapchain::setDefaultCreateInfo() {
+  SwapchainSupportDetails swapchainSupport = this->device.getSwapchainSupport();
+
+  vk::SurfaceFormatKHR surfaceFormat =
+      chooseSurfaceFormat(swapchainSupport.formats);
+  vk::PresentModeKHR presentMode =
+      choosePresentMode(swapchainSupport.presentModes);
+  this->extent = chooseExtent(swapchainSupport.capabilities);
+
+  u32 imageCount = swapchainSupport.capabilities.minImageCount + 1;
+  if (swapchainSupport.capabilities.maxImageCount > 0 &&
+      imageCount > swapchainSupport.capabilities.maxImageCount) {
+    imageCount = swapchainSupport.capabilities.maxImageCount;
+  }
+
+  this->swapchainCreateInfo = {vk::SwapchainCreateFlagsKHR(),
+                               this->device.getSurface(),
+                               imageCount,
+                               surfaceFormat.format,
+                               surfaceFormat.colorSpace,
+                               this->extent,
+                               1,
+                               vk::ImageUsageFlagBits::eColorAttachment};
+
+  QueueFamilyIndices indices = this->device.getQueueIndices();
+  u32 queueFamilyIndices[] = {indices.graphicsFamily.value(),
+                              indices.presentFamily.value()};
+
+  if (indices.graphicsFamily != indices.presentFamily) {
+    swapchainCreateInfo.imageSharingMode = vk::SharingMode::eConcurrent;
+    swapchainCreateInfo.queueFamilyIndexCount = 2;
+    swapchainCreateInfo.pQueueFamilyIndices = queueFamilyIndices;
+  } else {
+    swapchainCreateInfo.imageSharingMode = vk::SharingMode::eExclusive;
+  }
+
+  swapchainCreateInfo.preTransform =
+      swapchainSupport.capabilities.currentTransform;
+  swapchainCreateInfo.compositeAlpha = vk::CompositeAlphaFlagBitsKHR::eOpaque;
+  swapchainCreateInfo.presentMode = presentMode;
+  swapchainCreateInfo.clipped = VK_TRUE;
+
+  swapchainCreateInfo.oldSwapchain = vk::SwapchainKHR(nullptr);
+  swapchainCreateInfo.oldSwapchain = this->oldSwapchain == nullptr
+                                         ? VK_NULL_HANDLE
+                                         : this->oldSwapchain->swapchain;
+
+  this->imageFormat = surfaceFormat.format;
+}
+
+void Swapchain::createSwapchain() {
+  try {
+    this->swapchain =
+        this->device.get()->createSwapchainKHR(this->swapchainCreateInfo);
+    // log::trace("created vk::SwapchainKHR");
+  } catch (const vk::SystemError& err) {
+    log::fatal("failed to create swapchain. Error: ", err.what());
+    throw std::runtime_error("failed to create swapchain");
+  }
+}
+
+void Swapchain::createImages() {
+  std::vector<vk::Image> swapchainImages =
+      this->device.get()->getSwapchainImagesKHR(this->swapchain);
+
+  this->images.clear();
+  this->images.reserve(swapchainImages.size());
+
+  for (vk::Image image : swapchainImages) {
+    this->images.push_back(Image::Builder(this->device)
+                               .wrapExisting(image)
+                               .setFormat(this->imageFormat)
+                               .setExtent(width(), height())
+                               .withView()
+                               .build());
+  }
+
+  // log::trace("created all swapchain vk::ImageView");
+}
+
+void Swapchain::createDepthImages() {
+  this->depthFormat = findDepthFormat();
+
+  this->depthImages.clear();
+  this->depthImages.reserve(imageCount());
+
+  for (size_t i = 0; i < imageCount(); i++) {
+    this->depthImages.push_back(Image::Builder(this->device)
+                                    .asDepthAttachment()
+                                    .setFormat(this->depthFormat)
+                                    .setExtent(width(), height())
+                                    .withView()
+                                    .build());
+  }
+
+  // log::trace("created all depth resources");
+}
+
+vk::SurfaceFormatKHR Swapchain::chooseSurfaceFormat(
+    const std::vector<vk::SurfaceFormatKHR>& availableFormats) {
+  if (availableFormats.size() == 1 &&
+      availableFormats[0].format == vk::Format::eUndefined) {
+    return {vk::Format::eB8G8R8A8Unorm, vk::ColorSpaceKHR::eSrgbNonlinear};
+  }
+
+  for (const auto& availableFormat : availableFormats) {
+    if (availableFormat.format == vk::Format::eB8G8R8A8Unorm &&
+        availableFormat.colorSpace == vk::ColorSpaceKHR::eSrgbNonlinear) {
+      return availableFormat;
+    }
+  }
+
+  log::info("No available surface formats, choosing default.");
+  return availableFormats[0];
+}
+
+vk::PresentModeKHR Swapchain::choosePresentMode(
+    const std::vector<vk::PresentModeKHR> availablePresentModes) {
+  vk::PresentModeKHR bestMode = vk::PresentModeKHR::eFifo;
+
+  for (const auto& availablePresentMode : availablePresentModes) {
+    if (availablePresentMode == vk::PresentModeKHR::eMailbox) {
+      log::info("Selected present mode: MAILBOX (triple buffering)");
+      return availablePresentMode;
+    } else if (availablePresentMode == vk::PresentModeKHR::eImmediate) {
+      bestMode = availablePresentMode;
+    }
+  }
+  log::warning("Present mode MAILBOX not available.");
+
+  if (bestMode == vk::PresentModeKHR::eImmediate) {
+    log::info("Selected present mode: IMMEDIATE (no vsync)");
+  } else {
+    log::info("Selected present mode: FIFO (vsync)");
+  }
+
+  return bestMode;
+}
+
+vk::Extent2D Swapchain::chooseExtent(
+    const vk::SurfaceCapabilitiesKHR& capabilities) {
+  if (capabilities.currentExtent.width != std::numeric_limits<u32>::max()) {
+    return capabilities.currentExtent;
+  } else {
+    vk::Extent2D choosenExtent = {};
+    choosenExtent.width =
+        std::clamp(this->extent.width, capabilities.minImageExtent.width,
+                   capabilities.maxImageExtent.width);
+    choosenExtent.height =
+        std::clamp(this->extent.height, capabilities.minImageExtent.height,
+                   capabilities.maxImageExtent.height);
+    return choosenExtent;
+  }
+}
+
+vk::Format Swapchain::findDepthFormat() {
+  return this->device.findSupportedFormat(
+      {vk::Format::eD32Sfloat, vk::Format::eD32SfloatS8Uint,
+       vk::Format::eD24UnormS8Uint},
+      vk::ImageTiling::eOptimal,
+      vk::FormatFeatureFlagBits::eDepthStencilAttachment);
+}
+
+}  // namespace sophia

engine/src/swapchain.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include <memory>
+#include <sophia/types.hpp>
+#include <vector>
+#include <vulkan/vulkan.hpp>
+
+#include "device.hpp"
+#include "image.hpp"
+
+namespace sophia {
+
+class Swapchain {
+ public:
+  Swapchain(const Swapchain&) = delete;
+  Swapchain& operator=(const Swapchain&) = delete;
+
+  Swapchain(Device& device, vk::Extent2D extent);
+  Swapchain(Device& device, vk::Extent2D extent,
+            std::shared_ptr<Swapchain> previous);
+  ~Swapchain();
+
+  Image& getImage(int index) const { return *this->images.at(index); }
+  Image& getDepthImage(int index) const { return *this->depthImages.at(index); }
+
+  vk::ImageView getImageView(int index) const {
+    return this->images.at(index)->getView();
+  }
+  vk::ImageView getDepthImageView(int index) const {
+    return this->depthImages.at(index)->getView();
+  }
+
+  size_t imageCount() { return this->images.size(); }
+  vk::Format getImageFormat() { return this->imageFormat; }
+  vk::Extent2D getExtent() { return this->extent; }
+  u32 width() { return this->extent.width; }
+  u32 height() { return this->extent.height; }
+
+  float extentAspectRatio() {
+    return static_cast<float>(this->extent.width) /
+           static_cast<float>(this->extent.height);
+  }
+
+  vk::Result acquireNextImage(vk::Semaphore signalSemaphore, u32& imageIndex);
+
+  vk::Result present(vk::Queue presentQueue, u32 imageIndex,
+                     vk::Semaphore waitSemaphore);
+
+  bool compareSwapchainFormats(const Swapchain& swapchain) const {
+    return swapchain.depthFormat == this->depthFormat &&
+           swapchain.imageFormat == this->imageFormat;
+  }
+
+ private:
+  void initialize();
+  void setDefaultCreateInfo();
+  void createSwapchain();
+  void createImages();
+  void createDepthImages();
+
+  vk::SurfaceFormatKHR chooseSurfaceFormat(
+      const std::vector<vk::SurfaceFormatKHR>& availableFormats);
+  vk::PresentModeKHR choosePresentMode(
+      const std::vector<vk::PresentModeKHR> availablePresentModes);
+  vk::Extent2D chooseExtent(const vk::SurfaceCapabilitiesKHR& capabilities);
+
+  vk::Format findDepthFormat();
+
+  Device& device;
+  vk::Extent2D extent;
+
+  vk::SwapchainKHR swapchain;
+  vk::SwapchainCreateInfoKHR swapchainCreateInfo;
+  std::shared_ptr<Swapchain> oldSwapchain;
+
+  vk::Format imageFormat;
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<Image>> images;
+
+  vk::Format depthFormat;
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<Image>> depthImages;
+};
+
+}  // namespace sophia

testbed/CMakeLists.txt

@@ -25,3 +25,7 @@ target_include_directories(testbed PRIVATE
     "${CMAKE_SOURCE_DIR}/engine/include"
     "${CMAKE_SOURCE_DIR}/external/imgui"
 )
+
+target_compile_definitions(testbed PRIVATE
+  TESTBED_SHADER_DIR="${CMAKE_CURRENT_SOURCE_DIR}/shaders"
+)

testbed/main.cpp

@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 #include <iostream>
-#include <sophia/application.hpp>
+// #include <sophia/application.hpp>
+#include <sophia/compute_smoke_test.hpp>
 #include <stdexcept>
 
 int main(int argc, const char** argv) {
@@ -7,9 +8,17 @@ int main(int argc, const char** argv) {
   (void)argv;
   std::cout << __FILE__ << "::" << __LINE__ << '\n';
 
-  sophia::Application app{{.width = 750, .height = 1000, .name = "Testbed"}};
+  try {
+    sophia::runComputeSmokeTest(TESTBED_SHADER_DIR "/smoke_test.comp");
+  } catch (const std::exception& e) {
+    std::cerr << "Compute smoke test failed: " << e.what() << '\n';
+    return EXIT_FAILURE;
+  }
 
-  app.run();
+  // sophia::Application app{
+  //     {.width = 750, .height = 1000, .name = "Testbed", .headless = true}};
+
+  // app.run();
 
   return EXIT_SUCCESS;
 }

testbed/shaders/smoke_test.comp

@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+#version 450
+
+layout(local_size_x = 64) in;
+
+layout(std430, binding = 0) buffer Data {
+  float values[];
+};
+
+void main() {
+  uint idx = gl_GlobalInvocationID.x;
+  values[idx] = values[idx] * 2.0;
+}